Introduction

The process of interacting with others to exchange information is an everyday task of humans as well as on a computer machine. Computer networking is a connection between two computers: according to the editors of the encyclopedia Britannica, when two or more computers are connected to exchange data electronically called computer networking (“computer network | Definition & Types”, 2021).

Discussion

They explained a network as a system that makes a cohesive architecture that allows a variety of equipment types to transfer information. In the same way, Cambridge Dictionary Online describes computer networking as a practice of transporting and exchanging data between nodes over a shared medium in a particular arranged system. Further, they see networking as a system that facilitates everything from telephone calls to text messaging to streaming video.

There are many types of computer networking categories based on how the network is built and the network functions.  The most important types are Personal Area Network (PAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Local Area Network (LAN),   and Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).  The two most basic computer networking types that have vast use everywhere are local-area networks (LANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).

When we have to connect computers in a limited physical area, such as a college campus, business office, or laboratory, we may build a Local area network (LAN). LAN is used for a limited area, on the other side, A wide area network (WAN), is a large network of exchanging of information that is not supposed to tie to a single location. This is used for sharing information worldwide. For example, The Internet and bank cash dispenser are good examples of the WAN network. Mostly the LANs are connected to WANs, for example, a university network can be connected to the Internet, which makes it LAN to WAN (WANG, 2008).

Conclusion

In my school computer lab, we had local area networks, or LANs, as I have explained above LAN is used to connect computers typically inside one building. The networking resources were printers, IP phones, servers, routers, and computers. The Connections between the nodes were physical, with cables. That was the most common type of LAN known as Ethernet. As this is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies so each device has a unique IP address. The most important devices which were used to build that local area network was the router, Ethernet cable, crossover Ethernet cable, and network interface.

References

computer network | Definition & Types. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2021). Retrieved 14 October 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer-network.

computer. Dictionary.cambridge.org. (2021). Retrieved 14 October 2021, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/computer.

WANG, J. (2008). Service-oriented network management model based on active network technology. Journal Of Computer Applications, 28(7), 1819-1822. https://doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1087.2008.01819

 
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2022-07-22 12:54:08

Introduction 

Parenting seems the easiest thing to have an opinion about, but it becomes the hardest thing in the world to do. Developmental psychologists have found a very deep impact of parenting styles on children’s development. However, it is also true there is a rare connection between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children. A study was conducted by Diana Baumrind in the 1960s, on more than 100 preschool-age children where she became able to find four parenting styles which are authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles. UK and Lebanon both countries fall into the same parenting styles. Because of globalization a lot of things have been marginalized between Lebanon and the UK, however, both countries still have a lot of things in parenting styles that can be compared and contrasted.  The parenting styles of the UK and Lebanon can be compared and contrasted by focusing on three main parts of the discussion:  Culture values of local Lebanon people and the UK, the role of religion, and both as a modern society.

Discussion

The UK and Lebanon both carry different cultural values which cause different parenting styles. Lebanon is a country where most of the people are conservative and exhibits a great deal of respect for modesty and chastity. Most Lebanese believe in organized religion and parliamentary government (Religion held in Lebanon, 2021).  On the other hand, UK cultural values are different. The people of the UK are open-minded and free thinkers. The culture of the UK promotes liberalism which causes parenting styles accordingly (Chan Anita Koo, T., 2021). Because of the bigoted culture of Lebanese, the parenting style is authoritative. Lebanon children are suppressed under the heavy weight of morality from their childhood in the contrast, the UK parents are more modern and generous so they carry the permissive styles.

Religious thoughts play critical roles in defining the parenting styles of any country. Lebanon is a strongly religious country where almost all the population has a religious affiliation. A study conducted by Statistics Lebanon in 2020 shows Lebanon’s population is estimated to be 50% Muslim, 45% Christian, 5% Melkite, and 5.2% Druze (“Religion in Lebanon – Wikipedia”, 2021). In contrast, the UK is a hub of atheism and no religious people. The proportion of people in the UK who say they are not God “very or extremely non-religious” has more than doubled, from 14% to 33% in the past two decades (Chan Anita Koo, T., 2021). Because of this contrast in religion, both countries have different parenting styles. In Lebanon, people are religious, so they value the concept of morality, and because of moral influence, parents consider their rights confidently which leads to authoritarian parenting styles. On the other side, parents in the UK are broad-minded so they let their child do their free will which leads to uninvolved parenting styles.

A big proportion of Lebanese society also is very modern and similar to certain cultures in the UK.  That proportion of Lebanon is linked culturally to Europe through France.  The uniquely diverse religious composition makes a rare environment that is at once European and Arab (Chan Anita Koo, 2021) So, because of this modern society, we found similarities between these two countries’ parenting styles, which are closer to authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles.

Conclusion

To summarize, we have compared and contrasted the parenting styles of the UK and Lebanon by focusing on the cultural values of local Lebanon people and the UK, religion, and both modern societies.  Because the UK and Lebanon, both carry different cultural values, these countries have different parenting styles. Besides, the role of religion is also critical in defining the parenting styles of both countries, meanwhile, the big proportion of Lebanese society also is very modern and similar to certain cultures in the UK which leads to similar parenting styles.

References

Chan Anita Koo, T., 2021. Parenting style and youth outcomes in the UK – Institute for Social and Economic Research (ISER). [online] Iser.essex.ac.uk. Available at: <https://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/research/publications/513419> [Accessed 23 March 2021].

Parenting Styles And Their Effect On Children Behavior Education Essay. (2021). Retrieved 31 March 2021, from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/parenting-styles-and-their-effect-on-children-behavior-education-essay.php

Religion in Lebanon – Wikipedia. (2021). Retrieved 31 March 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon

Warash, Bobbie. “Are Middle-Class Parents Authoritative with a Touch of Permissiveness?.” Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin 74. 22007 28-31. Chua, Amy. Why Chinese Mothers Are Superior the Wall Street Journal

What Is My Parenting Style? Four Types of Parenting. (2021). Retrieved 31 March 2021, from https://www.brighthorizons.com/family-resources/parenting-style-four-types-of-parenting (2021). Retrieved 31 March 2021, from https://www.scielo.br/pdf/cint/v40n2/0102-8529-cint-2018400200002.pdf
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Introduction

Like every society and modern state, the United States has a number of “traditions,” many of them inherited from its immigrant cultures and some of them invented on American soil. But regardless of their origins, the process of tradition is obviously at work if we look more carefully at the introduction of the “tradition” and its evolution over time. Further, the social and political functions of tradition also become clear: society needs “traditions” to achieve social integration, establish and implant social memories, and produce the proper kind of national citizen. In fact, the great era of the invention of traditions in the U.S., and in many other parts of the world, was the late 1800s and early 1900s, as elements of the overall “nation-building” process intended to create national unity and to instill self-awareness and national pride in its members. This essay discusses the Thanksgiving traditions of America. 

Discussion 

History of the Thanksgiving tradition

The “tradition” that can claim the greatest antiquity on American soil is Thanksgiving. Of course, as with the case of the Argentinian tango, there was no such thing as “America” and certainly not “the United States” in the early 1600s. Worse, the facticity of Thanksgiving what “really happened” on that first occasion is largely lost in the mists of time. It does appear that some English settlers and some Native Americans ate together in Plymouth in the autumn of 1621. Significantly, the Pilgrims themselves apparently did not regard this event as “the first Thanksgiving” for two reasons. To start, days of thanksgiving were routinely celebrated by this particularly pious group of immigrants; according to Andrew Smith, “hundreds of thanksgiving proclamations were issued by ministers and governors” in New England (2003: 79), so there is no reason to presume that this was the first. Second, “Whatever happened in 1621, the Puritans did not have special memories of it. They made no subsequent mention of that autumn and did not commemorate it in later years.” (81) Smith reports only one church record of a thanksgiving feast, and that in 1636, with two later events possibly held on October 12, 1637 and December 11, 1639.

Many days for giving thanks were celebrated subsequently, including December 18, 1777 after victory at the Battle of Saratoga, but this had nothing to do with the Pilgrims or “the first Thanksgiving.” Indeed, English culture was replete with feast days, such as Guy Fawkes Day and All Saints Day, but “none of these holidays had been celebrated by the Puritans, who rejected them for religious reasons and opposed the drunkenness, rowdiness, and frivolity that often accompanied them” (79).  

Foods and Thanksgiving traditions 

Exactly what foods were on the original table is not entirely certain, and the “traditional” fare of Thanksgiving seems to have settled into place much later. It is unclear if turkey was served, since records from the period refer only to “fowl.” Potatoes could not have been featured, as potatoes were not yet known in the Northeast. Cranberries may have been on the menu but not cranberry sauce, since sugar was not yet available in the Americas either. Finally, apple pie too was not part of the festivities, as apples are not native to the Americas and did not arrive until much later. More likely, the revelers consumed deer, corn, and much seafood including cod, clams, and eels.

So where did the “tradition” of turkey, potatoes, cranberry sauce, and apple pie come from? The most likely source is the “imaginative remembering” (see Chapter 11 of Cultural Anthropology: Global Forces, Local Lives) of writer Sarah Josepha Hale, who was also the composer of the “traditional” rhyme “Mary Had a Little Lamb” (originally published in 1830 as “Mary and the Lamb”). Three years previously she published a novel titled Northwood: or, a Tale of New England which featured a whole chapter on Thanksgiving dinner: in it, the “roasted turkey took precedence … being placed at the head of the table,” and she described the other fixings that rounded out the meal. Inspired by the fame that she achieved with the story, she launched a campaign in 1846 to make Thanksgiving a national holiday. Smith reminds us that, at the time, the new United States had only two official holidays—Independence Day (July 4) and Washington’s Birthday (February 22), and “Hale believed that America needed an autumn holiday” (82).

For years she solicited presidents, congressmen, and governors to recognize her new holiday. Smith stresses that she felt “that Thanksgiving could pull the United States together as regional differences, economic self-interest, and slavery tore the nation apart” (82-3). Fortunately for her, the United States, or what was left of it, was never in more need of unity than in 1863, in the middle of the Civil War. Thus, it was that on October 3, 1863, Abraham Lincoln finally proclaimed Thanksgiving Day as a national holiday. The original proclamation read as follows

The year that is drawing towards its close, has been filled with the blessings of fruitful fields and healthful skies. To these bounties, which are so constantly enjoyed that we are prone to forget the source from which they come, others have been added, which are of so extraordinary a nature, that they cannot fail to penetrate and soften even the heart which is habitually insensible to the ever-watchful providence of Almighty God. In the midst of a civil war of unequaled magnitude and severity, which has sometimes seemed to foreign States to invite and provoke their aggression, peace has been preserved with all nations, the order has been maintained, the laws have been respected and obeyed, and harmony has prevailed everywhere except in the theatre of military conflict; while that theatre has been greatly contracted by the advancing armies and navies of the Union. Needful diversions of wealth and of strength from the fields of peaceful industry to the national defense have not arrested the plow, the shuttle, or the ship; the ax has enlarged the borders of our settlements, and the mines, as well as iron and coal as of the precious metals, have yielded even more abundantly than heretofore. The population has steadily increased, notwithstanding the waste that has been made in the camp, the siege, and the battlefield; and the country, rejoicing in the consciousness of augmented strength and vigor, is permitted to expect continuance of years with a large increase of freedom. No human counsel hath devised nor hath any mortal hand worked out these great things. They are the gracious gifts of the Highest God, who, while dealing with us in anger for our sins, hath nevertheless remembered mercy. It has seemed to me fit and proper that they should be solemnly, reverently, and gratefully acknowledged as with one heart and one voice by the whole American People. I do therefore invite my fellow citizens in every part of the United States, and also those who are at sea and those who are sojourning in foreign lands, to set apart and observe the last Thursday of November next, as a day of Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens. And I recommend to them that while offering up the ascriptions justly due to Him for such singular deliverances and blessings, they do also, with humble penitence for our national perverseness and disobedience, commend to His tender care all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners or sufferers in the lamentable civil strife in which we are unavoidably engaged, and fervently implore the interposition of the Almighty Hand to heal the wounds of the nation and to restore it as soon as may be consistent with the Divine purposes to the full enjoyment of peace, harmony, tranquility, and Union. Note that there is no direct reference to “the first Thanksgiving” or the Plymouth settlers.

Date of Thanksgiving traditions 

The final issue was setting the date for the “tradition.” As we have seen, there is no historical basis for late November: the “first Thanksgiving” could have been in October or December, and it could have been a Wednesday or Thursday. Lincoln declared the last Thursday in November, and so it was for seventy years—except for Andrew Johnson who set aside the first Thursday in December of 1865, and Ulysses Grant who preferred the third Thursday in 1869. So, for Lincoln’s first two successors, the special day was still in transition. Then, in 1939, Franklin Roosevelt moved Thanksgiving to the next-to-last Thursday in November, at the bidding of the National Retail Dry Goods Association, for the purpose of creating a longer Christmas shopping season. And so, it was for two years, although only half of the states observed the change (23 Democratic states shifted with Roosevelt, but 23 Republican states kept the older “tradition”—and Texas and Colorado celebrated both!). But after two years of popular complaint, the special day was reset to the fourth Thursday in November.

Thanksgiving Day Parade

One of the more amusing embellishments of the “tradition” is the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade, added in 1924. Originally called Macy’s Christmas Parade, it was entirely planned and staged by the Macy’s department store, with Santa Claus officially crowned on the balcony of Macy’s 34^th Street store entrance (hence the name of the famous Christmas movie “Miracle on 34^th Street”). The first parade featured live animals, but a new tradition was added to the new tradition in 1927—large inflatable balloon characters, including Felix the Cat. Since then, characters have been continuously added or changed, such as Snoopy (from the “Peanuts” comic strip), Buzz Lightyear (from “Toy Story”), and Spongebob Squarepants—none of whom were present at the “first Thanksgiving.”

Importance of Thanksgiving traditions as a cultural aspect

Of course, along the way and since, Thanksgiving—like every other “tradition” and aspect of culture—has added and dropped content. Smith finds that as early as 1867 the association—not made by Lincoln—between the new Thanksgiving and the “first Thanksgiving” was appearing in newspapers and magazines, and school textbooks soon picked up the story. One B. F. De Costa traced the “American tradition” back even further, to the Bible and then to Rome, and finally to America by way of England and the Pilgrims. But a “tradition” really becomes “traditional” when it is absorbed and replicated in the popular culture, and in 1889 Jane G. Austin published Standish of Standish: A Story of the Pilgrims with a fictional account of the First Thanksgiving, complete with turkey and (almost) all of the trimmings. But this was a project of Austin’s imagination, albeit one that has been “remembered” by generations of Americans since.

Conclusion

As Smith rightly concludes, “The Pilgrims and their proverbial First Thanksgiving are origin myths, tracing America to its beginnings” (85). Significantly, Plymouth was not the first settlement in North America—that honor goes to Jamestown, or if we are counting failed settlements then to Roanoke (1587), or if we are counting Spanish settlements then to St. Augustine in Florida (1565), or if we are counting failed French settlement then to Parris Island, South Carolina (1562). But since none of those adventures makes a decent origin myth, then Plymouth it is. (Interestingly, Smith notes that, since Virginia was passed over for the site of the origin of America, many Southerners rejected Thanksgiving for many years after the Civil War. But two things are true about “traditions”: the historical facts are not really relevant, and, if they succeed, they can unify even the prickliest enemies.

Reference

Smith, Andrew. 2003. “The First Thanksgiving.” Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and 

Culture 3 (4): 79–85.

Introduction

Cyber security legislation is the need of the day in the USA. Though some rules are there for better security and protection of damage to the internet users however crimes ratio advocates that present legislation is not enough to deal with cybercrimes effectively. Even in 2020, 38 states of America are lacking cyber security legislation. California’s security of connected devices legislation is in effect from January 2020 ( Petter,2021). Additionally, the law states appropriate and reasonable security measures which is a broader term. It requires more specifications for the sale and purchase of connected devices to be more effective. In 2017, more than 143 million people in America became victims of cybercriminals. 80 percent of Americans claim that they know a victim of cybercrimes.

Many Law enforcement agencies like the FBI cyber wing and National Defense Cyber Alliance (NDCA) are working to chase and investigate cybercrimes for the safety of the people. But they find it hard when there is electronic proof of the crime committed or the damage claimed by the victim. It means the steps are taken and the professional skill of the agencies is still to be improved and polished. The center of internet complaints receives 791,790 cases in 2020 which is 300,000 more than in 2019. This shows the rapid increase of cyber crimes and their expertise to breach and deceive the network systems and security agencies. There is no single federal law to control privacy, cyber security, and information system in the country. Careful cooperation, coordination, a collaboration of states and institutions, systems, and technologies are required for cyber security (Soni, 2020). In short, the aim of this essay is to indicate stringent cyber policies and discuss the USA government’s cyber activities for the growing cases of cyber security crimes in the USA.

Discussion 

USA and Cyber security

The USA is the largest user of internet services. Despite the laws being present, much can be done to improve cyber security in the USA. Besides legislation and law enforcement agencies, more steps like increased knowledge of cyber security and free education can be more helpful. Government should improve and upgrade the security systems to deal with the ever new ways of cybercrimes. Proper auditing of the security system of companies will increase the credibility and trust of the customers and clients. Social engineering will help people realize their vulnerable points to be protected against cybercrimes, it will be a great deal as everybody uses social media for refreshment, recreation, and advertisement purposes.

The use of cyber security education and awareness illustrates the importance and use of devices more safely. It will enable the people to know more about personal particulars against criminals. Monitoring the most effective measures for cyber security, careful monitoring of the use of devices will decrease any threat to personal and national information. Physical securing, guarding, and industry compliances are some other ways for better cyber security in the USA. These measures make internet users more safe and confident in their day-to-day business.

Advance cyber security issues

With the rapid emergence and development of technology, internet users are facing a more delicate situation. New agencies and institutions are necessary to tackle the new technology used by cybercriminals. Law enforcement agencies must progress at a higher pace than the criminals to deal with them effectively and efficiently. Cyber security should be more developed and advanced to eliminate the threat of cybercrimes. America established a cyber security infrastructure agency in 2018. It was expected to improve the cyber security situation in the country. But massive attacks on most cyber security agencies in the UAS by foreign hackers are a question mark on the performance of the law enforcement agencies. 

It is felt badly that there is a dire need for more efficient, proficient, and equipped agencies to ensure the cyber security measure in America. These agencies should not chase the criminals after the damage has occurred.  These agencies should be proactive to detect the vulnerable points to guard them against criminals. People should be taught and trained to be aware of the rights and responsibilities connected to this concern to improve cyber security. In time information about new trends in cybercrimes and advanced technology used by criminals should be known by the information officers to save the people and government from the damage (Nadikattu & Rahul, 2020). The ultimate purpose of these agencies should be the protection and improvement of cyber security of government institutions, organizations, and internet networks to make the use of the internet more reliable and trusted. 

Failure of cyber security

Easy access to the internet and lack of cybercrime laws are opportunities for cyber crimes to take a safe shelter in developing countries. Africa, India, and Kenya have become a paradise for cybercriminals. It is difficult for cybercrime control agencies to detect and chase them. Though several steps have been developed by the Director of the National Intelligence office that help to detect and permit immediate actions against cybercriminals and hackers the laws global laws are inefficient for the curbing of such criminals. The laws formed are outdated and require revision on a regular basis to cope with the modern style of cybercrimes. It is again difficult due to the state-sponsored cyber attack policies of American authorities. The use of malware for hacking is not unusual for investing purposes. This also encourages breaches in network systems and makes it easier for criminals to take advantage of them..

Conclusion

Cybercrimes go further to cyber espionage and cyberwar, no hurdle is placed in their way of progression. It can only be done through effective, efficient, research-based, and up-to-date cyber laws for foolproof cyber security. It requires diligence and commitment to framing some globally agreed rules to save the internet using community (Gumbi, 2018).  Rapidly increasing cybercrimes can only be controlled by detecting and punishing criminals anywhere in the world with the same zeal and zest through agreed legislation by the nations indiscriminately.

References

Back, S., & LaPrade, J. (2019). The Future of Cybercrime Prevention Strategies: Human Factors and A Holistic Approach to Cyber Intelligence. The International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence and Cybercrime, 2(2), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.52306/02020119kdhz8339

Gumbi, D. (2018). Understanding the threat of cybercrime: A comparative study of cybercrime and the ICT legislative frameworks of South Africa, Kenya, India, the United States and the United Kingdom. The University of Cape Town. https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/29247/thesis_law_2018_gumbi_dumisani.pdf?sequence=1

Nadikattu, Rahul, R. (2020). New ways of implementing cyber security to help in protecting America. Journal of Xidian University, 14(5). https://doi.org/10.37896/jxu14.5/651

Soni, V. D. (2020). Challenges and Solution for Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity of the USA. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3624487

Introduction

A step towards the understanding of language and print literacy is the early keystone for any child. There is a need to understand the concept of language and how the language development process starts in the mind of a child. Language is an organized system of human communication based on words, structurally organized to convey or deliver a message (Language, 2021). Humans have evolved over time, same as the language system also has evolved according to the needs of a particular community. In the development of the language, print literacy has played a critical role. Understanding print literacy involves knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, reading, and writing skills of that language. Both are interconnected in one way or another so it is important to understand print in order to comprehend the language (Bruke,1997).

In this essay, we will discuss the typical patterns of child development in language and early print literacy along with the concept of oral language, phonological and phonemic awareness, graphic-phonic decoding, and language comprehension that help children in better development of the language.

Discussion

Role of oral language in print literacy

Oral language is a system of spoken communication and the foundation of literacy and numeracy through which we use spoken words and vocabulary to express our knowledge and understand the language better (Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction, 2021). Oral language plays a pivotal role in the fluent reading of the print. Reading independently, at a reasonable rate, and understanding what is written. Children develop oral language skills by listening however there are some children with poorly developed oral language skills when they come to school. Schools ensure children’s assistance to help improve their oral language skills. There is no quick fix for spoken language skills. In fact, it is an ongoing and long-term process (Language Comprehension, Encyclopedia.com, 2021). This oral language directly relates to print literacy, for example, if the child has heard a word before and understands its meaning, he is more likely to be able to read that word. That is why oral language skill has a strong relationship with the reading comprehension of print (Bruke,1997: 254-264).

Importance of phonological awareness in print literacy

Phonological awareness is basically understanding the sound system of language. Phonological awareness is the ability to understand the spoken parts of words and sentences (Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction, 2021). It involves understanding rhymes, alliteration between words, understanding the syllables, and segmenting sentences into words. When kids understand words, teachers help them form sentences from words and segment sentences to understand the meaning. For example, the teacher would make students clap word by word like I (clap) like (clap) banana (clap). So, in this way kids can learn segmenting, and when they learn that they can learn to identify syllables in the words like an elephant (3 syllables), children (2 syllables) and after identifying the syllables they can pronounce these words. Before the kids are taken to the next step, they need to develop the auditory skills to identify and process the words in their minds and express them orally. If we take print literacy as a building, then phonological awareness is one of the building blocks of that. Phonemic awareness, graphic-phonic decoding, and language comprehension are the further building blocks of the main building we call “print literacy”. Phonological skills are built over time and pivotal to decoding and spelling the printed words and in the long run, these skills result in successful print literary development (Oxbridge,2021).

Phonemic awareness could be described as the most sophisticated part of phonological awareness as phonemic awareness is the skill to understand sounds called phonemes in spoken words. This involves segmenting the words into sounds and combining different sounds to form words. Different methodologies can be used to help kids understand phonemes better. Lego blocks can be used, and kids will enjoy and learn to play with different sounds by arranging blocks differently. Phonemic awareness helps the kids’ difference between letters and sounds. Some kids lack the ability to mix different sounds but know the letter sounds, which means the kids are facing the problem of phonological awareness (Bruke,1997). Teachers need to interact with the kids to help them differentiate between letters and sounds clear. Phonemic Awareness is important in students’ print literacy development in the early years of schooling because under this skill a reader notices how letters represent sounds which give readers a way to approach sounding out and reading new words ( Bruke,1997).

Grapho-phonic in print literacy

Grapho-phonic is the art of establishing a relation between letters-words and sound words. This involves the use of grapho-phonic cues and helps to read and understand words by connecting speech sounds with letters and letter patterns (Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction, 2021). The use of grapho-phonic cues to learn words is called grapho-phonic decoding. Grapho-phonic decoding is the next step in the learning process for the kids. When the kids have attained a satisfactory level of phonological skills they are introduced to phonics (Language Comprehension, Encyclopedia.com, 2021). The first step of phonics is decoding, which is crucial to the whole grapho-phonics process. Kids learn to decode letters and sounds and form words ( Bruke,1997). This helps them build a letter-sound or sound-word relationship and recognize unknown words using this sound-letter relationship. Decoding helps kids understand new words and results in increased vocabulary. In contrast, if they are only taught sight word recognition it will not do any good to the students because it will be short term and the kids would not be able to understand and explore new and different words (Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction, 2021). Decoding words also helps them build sight word memory and learn the words more efficiently. Grapho-phonic decoding provides the necessary knowledge of sound letters and knowledge of letter patterns which help the kid to understand the written print. Many pieces of research have proved the importance of decoding for successful reading as grapho-phonic decoding lets kids explore new words by establishing connections between letters-words and sounds-words which ease children in Language comprehensive and Print Literacy development (Bruke,1997: 254-264).

Language comprehension and Print Literacy

Once the kids have learned all the above techniques it automatically moves forward to the next step which is language comprehension. Language comprehension is development in print literacy (understanding the meaning of the written text) and oral language. Particularly, it describes the ability of the student to derive the meaning from the written print. For a better understanding of the print, it is necessary to have language comprehension. If kids lack a comprehensive understanding of the language, very probably they would not be able to gain the meaning of the written text.

 Language comprehension involves developing connections and relations between words to get meaning. Comprehension of spoken and written language is correlated with the ability of the kids to understand words, phrase meanings, and grammar. To understand what is written in the print, it is imperative to have background knowledge, knowledge of vocabulary, and sentence structure which is altogether called language comprehension. If the kid does not know sentence structure or doesn’t have enough background knowledge, he wouldn’t be able to understand the meaning of the sentence completely (Brule,2008). As the kids learn more new and complex words, they become more fluent in reading and understanding the meaning of the context. Apart from fluency, the rate at which they read also increases with the fulfillment of language comprehensiveness which leads to a better understanding of the print.

So, comprehension of the language is the key to reading fluently and it develops over a long-time in a child beginning right after birth and then throughout the lifetime. Before going to school kids learn from their parents and their surroundings. Kids listen to everything and process the information in their minds . This circle of learning language literacy starts from a spoken language which the kid learns from his environment, whichever language is being spoken in his environment he will develop oral skills of that language and this oral language skill will improve with time with a better understanding of spoken words. And kids will process this information to understand more and more words. This skill helps in the next step of language literacy which is phonological awareness. If a kid has developed strong oral language skills, he will be able to understand what is written in the text once he knows how to read. 

All the above-discussed techniques are interconnected with each other. For example, if the kid has oral language skills but lacks phonological understanding, he is going to struggle in that area and will face difficulty in understanding the words and processing them to comprehend the meaning of the text (Phonological and Phonemic ( Ahmad, 2021). So, we need to take kids through a step-by-step process where we introduce them to new domains of language at the time suitable for them. By doing this, they will understand better and much more effectively. When the kid has developed language and phonological awareness, they are to be introduced to phonics and decoding. Kids will learn to read and understand words through graphic decoding that correlates with their previous knowledge of phonemes and oral language (Perte, 2016). In this way, they will be able to comprehend better what is written in the text and all of this will result in print literacy of the kids in a step-by-step process.

Conclusion

To sum up; Discussed typical patterns and skills directly contribute to a child’s print literacy and language development. Oral language, phonological and phonemic awareness, phonic decoding, and language comprehension are essential components in learning the language and early print literacy. They are the building blocks of language literacy and all these skills are to be understood and developed in the kids to develop language and print literacy(John,2015). If they lack in one or more, they would not be able to understand and comprehend the language. The main idea of this is to develop language comprehension and fluent reading in the kids. If the kid has developed these skills, he will be able to better comprehend language and read the print.

Reference

Oxbridge Essays. 2021. Oxbridge Essays | Essay writing services from professional academics. [online] Available at: <https://www.oxbridgeessays.com/> [Accessed 15 April 2021].

Bruke, D. “Language, Aging, and Inhibitory Deficits: Evaluation of a Theory. “Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 52B (1997): 254-264

Encyclopedia.com. 2021. Language Comprehension | Encyclopedia.com. [online] Available at: <https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/language-comprehension> [Accessed 15 April 2021].

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Abstract 

This psychoanalytical study is the study of the novel “The Comeback” written by Ella Berman in 2020. Frued (1950) proclaims that Psychoanalysis theory deals with the specific premises of the workings of the mind. Most of the novel’s chapters deal with Grace’s character, who is exploited and manipulated at the age of fourteen by The Hollywood director, Able Yorke. She seems to have fame and a reputation as a superstar but on the inside, she is broken and living a miserable life because of the traumatic experiences of sexual abuse. She becomes addicted to alcohol and other drugs. Freud (1896) names this situation the effect of trauma. This dissertation provides the understanding of Trauma theory through the character of the protagonist of the novel The Comeback, and it also presents the execution of the psychoanalysis theory by exploring the unknown and hidden perspectives of Grace’s character. This research highlights how childhood sexual abuse impacts the development of Grace’s character, and how sexual abuse leads to her Abnormal behavior.

It is a very common observation that the human mind tends to retain some memories even if they are bad or good, any experience which leaves an impact on a person’s life stays in the memory. That particular experience becomes eternalized in the memory of that person. Although the event that happened once, does not go on happening again and again, the memory of the traumatized victim, becomes eternal. It happens again and again and always leaves the person in the same agonized state in which he/she was left when encountered with that very experience for the first time. There are times when a sudden outburst, a certain event, or even the slightest idea can lead to the disorientation of thoughts and activities, just because the person feels that he is experiencing the same event again, only that he is not and it is just his memory of the circumstance which makes him feel like this.

   Introduction

As camera introduces us to invisible optics as does psychoanalysis to unconscious impulses. The theory of psychoanalysis is the most imposing theory we have in the post-war period.  It was birthed by the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud in the 1950s, who provided a radically new approach to the analysis and treatment of ‘abnormal’, sexual, and traumas’ behavior. It deals with the dynamics of the workings of the mind and focuses on the state of mind of the author or the state of mind of characters created by the author. The closest connection between literature and psychoanalysis has always been located in literary theory. Among these literary theories to literature, psychoanalysis is one of the modern theories that are used in English literature.  Caruth (1996) explained the relationship between literature and psychoanalysis as

“If Freud turns to literature to describe the traumatic experience, it is because literature

itself is interested in the complex relationship between knowing and not knowing, and it is at this specific point at which knowing and not knowing to intersect that the psychoanalytic theory of

traumatic experience and the language of literature meet.” (Caruth 1996)

 It is regarded as a theory of behavior organization and the dynamics of the mind.  Despite that, psychoanalysis study is considered a fascinating lens and constructive approach in the application of interpretative analysis of any text. This dissertation details the psychoanalytical study of the novel “The Comeback” penned by Ella Berman in 2020.

Grace is the protagonist of the novel.  The whole story revolves around her.  she is a young actress who becomes a victim of sexual abuse at the age of fourteen.  Hollywood director, Able Yorke takes her to America and introduces her to the Hollywood industry.  She becomes a

Hollywood star of a wildly successful film series, but all decisions about her life are in the hands of a controlling and manipulative director, Able Yorke. Grace depends on him, so he manipulates and exploits her to the maximum.  Although, she seems to have fame and a reputation as a superstar. However, this was only one side of the coin, but behind that public facade, Grace was raped by the same person, Able Yorke, who makes her a superstar in the industry.  Because of this trauma, she becomes addicted to alcohol and drugs so that she can escape from her miserable life.

  One day, on the cusp of awards season, she completely disappears from the public eye. She spends years quietly. She has a complicated relationship with everyone. She lost the connection with her parents, sister, and husband, whom she holds up as a saint. Grace returns to Los Angeles after a year, and she struggles with her future. She tries hard to repair her relationships with her loved ones and studio executives alike. Unfortunately, she observes the same situation-those who run Hollywood, like Yorke, are still in power, and still exploiting that power to take advantage of young stars. 

This psychoanalytical study discusses the mechanisms to find out the hidden meaning of a literary text of the novel “The Comeback” particularly with the character of Grace. It also helps us to understand, the execution of the trauma theory such as: how childhood sexual abuse trauma impacts the development of Grace’s character and how leads it to her Abnormal

behavior.

Objectives

The main objectives of this dissertation are

1. To study the impact of childhood sexual abuse on the development of Grace’s character
2. To study how sexual abuse causes abnormal behavior of the protagonist 

Literature Review

The psychoanalysis theory is one of the most consuming modern theories used in literary analysis of the different genres.  Despite this, psychoanalysis has a close connection with literature or not, it has become one of the most interesting mechanisms for interpreting the hidden meaning of the text. Psychoanalysis is not simply a branch of medicine, but also it is used to understand various fields such as philosophy, culture, religion, and first and for most use in literature. So, significant numbers of studies can be found where researchers applied psychoanalysis theory to different texts.

Khotimah (2004) in his thesis “psychoanalysis of Native Son (1940)” discusses Bigger’s

Character utilizing psychoanalysis theory which includes Freud’s psychoanalysis and the Motivation theory of Human behavior by Fryer and Morgan and King. The thesis attempts to uncover every psychological aspect of Bigger’s character through his behavior. This dissertation has a similar approach especially in psychoanalysis theory, although the object of the analysis is different.

Maupassant in his short story “TheNecklace” (1888) has been analyzed several times as a psychoanalytical study by different researchers.  On J Stor, several articles have been published where different researcher prepares psychoanalytical study of the short story The Necklace. Bement in his article (2011) who offers an interpretation of Maupassant’s development of the plot of The Necklace, believing that he may have considered the implications of both greed and innocence to form his story.  He comments upon the surprise ending in The Necklace and its correlation to psychological realism and relates with psychoanalysis theory.  O’Faolain in his article (2013) in which he asserts that the cleverness of The Necklace lies not in the surprise ending but its realistic portrayal of human relationships and society.  He said the shock ending of The Necklace is the highlight of the story, condemning Maupassant’s portrayal of relationships as vague and unconvincing and his plot as improbable.  In finding, all these articles’ authors implement psychoanalysis theory on “The Necklace”.

Anumpa (2016) in his article on ” Cry the Peacock” portrays the psychic tumult of a young and sensitive married girl Maya who is haunted by a childhood prophecy of a fatal disaster. She is the daughter of a rich advocate in Lucknow. Being alone in the family, her mother being dead and brother having gone to America to carve his independent destiny, she gets the most of her father’s affection and attention and in her moments of affliction exclaims to herself: “No one, no one else, loves me as my father does”. The excessive love Maya gets from her father makes her have a lop-sided view of life. She feels the world to be a toy made especially for her, painted in her favorite colors and set moving according to her tunes.  On the other side, according to Ayub (2018) ” Cry the Peacock (1963) “is about Neurosis and its impact on human personality that have engaged the attention of both psychologists and creative writers. By following the impact of Freud and with the development of various psychological theories in the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries, he examines how Maya, the protagonist of Anita

Desai’s Cry, The Peacock is forced into a psychotic state on account of an incompatible and unsympathetic marital relationship

Anthony (1956) claimed that D.H. Lawrence’s novel “Sons and Lovers “gives grounds for a psychoanalytic interpretation.  The protagonist of the novel reexamined his relationship with his mother and her psychological effect on his sexuality which relates to one of Freud’s most famous theories known as the Oedipus Complex (1899).  According to Ramos, the work of

D. H. Lawrence provides evidence of personality development of Oedipal conflict and the pre-

Oedipal establishment of a sense of self. In the same regard, Jones (1922) in “A Psycho-

Analytic Study of Hamlet” argues (1922) that William Shakespeare’s tragic hero, Hamlet, suffers from an Oedipus Complex one of Freud’s theories the idea that a male character is driven by unconscious desires to kill his father and marry his mother.  

Sarge (2019) Applied Psychoanalytic Theory to Macbeth. He suggests that the dynamic character that is Macbeth all parts of Freud’s psyche surface while choice characters such as

Lady Macbeth and King Duncan largely represent one psyche personality. Correspondingly, Levine (2020) stated that the power of psychological suggestion motivates Macbeth to act on his repressed desires. They are the contrasting counterparts Id and Superego, which are the most imposing concept of Freud in psychoanalysis theory.

Apart from the above particular research, a significant number of researches have been conducted to identify research articles, investigating the correlation between sexual abuse and its aftereffects.  Many studies also examined multiple or single incidents of abuse and both childhood and adult victimization. 

Research Question

• How do childhood sexual abuse and its aftereffects impact the development of Grace’s character?
• To what extent does the sexual abuse of the protagonist show her abnormal behavior?

Theoretical Framework

Numerous theories deal with mind and behavior; however, the most known theory is psychoanalysis theory.   It was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Austrian Neurologist Sigmund Freud who provided a radically new approach to the analysis and treatment of ‘abnormal’, sexual, and any kind of traumas’ behavior.  Before this, critics ignore the behavioral errors and look for a physiological explanation of ‘abnormality,’ however, with the introduction of Freudian theories, critics recognized that abnormal behavior is not meaningless but always happens because of an intense cause, and Freud named its trauma. 

Detail description is found on the unconscious mind by Freud.  He defines the unconscious as the part of the mind that lies outside the somewhat vague and porous boundaries of consciousness.  He also relates unconsciousness to the Laws of transformation. These principles govern the process of repression Psychoanalytic Theory used in English Literature:   the unconscious works as the theoretical function of making the relation between adult behavior intelligible and childhood experience. 

Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality.  Id refers to a selfish, primitive, childish pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification.

Whereas Super Ego refers to internalized societal and parental standards of ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ behavior’, and Ego refers to the moderator between the Id and Super-Ego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It is not clear what would count as evidence sufficient to confirm or refute theoretical claims. The theory is based on an inadequate conceptualization of the experience of women.  The theory overemphasizes the role of sexuality causes in human psychological development that leads to trauma. 

According to Judith Herman (I992), trauma theory has provided a framework for understanding how individuals process devastating experiences. Psychological trauma is an affliction of the powerless. At the moment of trauma, the victim is rendered helpless by overwhelming force. Traumatic events overwhelm the ordinary systems of care that give people a sense of control, connection, and meaning. Traumatic events are extraordinary, not because they occur rarely, but rather because they overwhelm the ordinary human adaptations to life. According to the Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, the common denominator of psychological trauma is a feeling of “intense fear, helplessness, loss of control, and the threat of annihilation.” 

Traumatic events shatter our basic assumptions that we will be safe, that we are good people, that our future relations would not do anything to harm us. Trauma-reactions are psychophysiological responses to the overwhelming events that the individual cannot integrate (Herman, 1992). Sexual abuse cannot be assimilated with our sense of self in the world. The dissociative process plays an important role in this regard. Braun (1990) describes it as follows: Dissociating is to sever the association of one thing from another. In psychiatry, dissociation is a defensive process that can intercede between affective states and thoughts to separate them from the mainstream of consciousness, between parts of behavioral chains, or between effects, behaviors, and thoughts. Dissociation may affect or distort the input level of perception.

Another important aspect of the traumatic response is hyperarousal. This includes startle reactions, irritability, hypervigilance, and difficulty with modulating the intensity of the effect. “After a traumatic experience, the human system of self-preservation seems to go on to permanent alert, as if the danger might return at any moment. Physiological arousal continues unabated” (Herman, 1992). It is believed that this hyperarousal is physiological as well as psychological in nature. There is evidence that trauma causes lasting biochemical and neuroanatomical changes (Greenberg, 1998).

The Comeback belongs to the psychological genre. Psychoanalysis and trauma theory have been used as a theoretical framework for the research. The comeback is a psychological novel, in which the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of Grace and other characters have greater interest than their external action or words. There are clear pieces of evidence that the internal states of Grace’s character and the emotional reactions lead to her abnormal behavior.

So, the novel I have chosen entirely fits the psychoanalysis theory.

Characterization

This psychoanalysis study starts with the abstract which summarizes the major aspects of the entire dissertation in a prescribed sequence that included: the overall purpose of the study, the research problem, and at the end major theory of the paper. The second heading is the heading of the introduction, which contains five Steps. the first step has Introduced the topic and defined theories.  Then background and introduction of the novel. After this, there is the research problem and objectives of the dissertation. The next heading is about literature review which provides a description and comprehensive summary of each source.  After the literature review, chapter one starts which deals with the research question, how sexual abuse impacts the development of the character of Grace, where I have provided bulk evidence from the novel’s text to support ideas. The backup text gives the idea of the negative impact of the sexual abuse Grace experienced in the novel. It is justified that Grace is a disturbing character who was manipulated, exploited, and the victim of sexual abuse starting at the age of fourteen.  Chapter 1 leads to chapter 2, in which I have talked about the abnormal actions of Grace. Chapter 2 is backed up with the evidence from the text of the novel. Chapter 2 talks about the character of Grace, who is not easy to understand.  She is trying not only to cope with all that has been taken away from her but also what has been done to her. Lastly, there is the conclusion which provides a summary of the whole study.